Professional & Ethical Issues

Psychological Measurements

Lecture, Chapter 21

Issues in Testing

•Moral Issues

            Human rights

1.      right not to be tested – exceptions to this right when “testing is mandated by law or government,” “when informed consent is implied because testing is conducted as a routine educational, institutional, or organizational activity,” or “when the purpose of testing is to evaluate decisional capacity.” (APA, 2002)

2.      right to know test scores and interpretations as well as bases of any decisions which affect their lives; although results are guarded, they are not guarded from the participant.

3.      right to know who will have access to the data and the right to confidentiality of the results.

            Labeling

1.      certain labels can be damaging, such as AIDS or chronic schizophrenia; if chronic schizophrenia, for example, why should one bother to help since “nothing can be done.”

2.      labels keep individuals from taking responsibility for their illness and feel that they have less control over there lives, resulting in lower tolerance for stress and more difficult treatment.

            Invasion of privacy

1.      one side: psychological tests are so limited, they cannot invade one’s privacy.

2.      another side: ambiguity of the notion of invasion of privacy-isn’t necessarily wrong, evil, or detrimental to find out about a person; privacy is invaded when the information is used inappropriately.

3.      ethical code of APA includes confidentiality: personal information is communicated only with the person’s consent, exceptions of which include when the person is a danger to selves or society, when information can be subpoenaed and used as evidence in court, or in employment decisions.

            Divided loyalties

1.      Who is the client – the individual or institution that ordered the test?

2.      industrial psychologist – identify those breaking down under stress while protecting the welfare of the client

3.      resolution: psychologists inform all where loyalty lies; clients are told in advance how tests are to be used; institution is given only minimum of information.

            Responsibilities of test users and test constructors – APA code says:

1.      “use assessment instruments whose validity and reliability have been established for use with members of the population being tested.”

2.      “ use assessment methods that are appropriate to an individual’s language preference and competence.”

3.      users are responsible for knowing the reason for using the test, the consequences of the test, and the procedures necessary to maximize the test’s effectiveness and to minimize unfairness.

•Social issues

            Dehumanization

1.      computer analyses of results minimizes individual freedom and uniqueness

2.      society must weigh risks of growing application of modern technology to testing field.

            Usefulness

1.      may be useful even if underlying principles are incorrect; ex: when people believed sun revolved around the earth, they were still able to use formulas to develop some accurate predictions, even though underlying assumption was wrong.

2.      the question is not whether or not tests are perfect but whether they are useful

            Access to testing services

1.      testing is expensive, and most cannot afford it ($775 for WAIS-III).

2.      test batteries for neurological and psychiatric assessment are available to those who can afford them and have enough insurance.

3.      schoolchildren with disabilities have the right to access free and appropriate public education under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). To ascertain needs, child is tested; if parents are not happy with school’s assessment, they can request independent assessment at school’s expense.

4.      national health insurance is still under debate.

•Professional Issues

            Theoretical concerns

1.      tests rest on the assumption of stability and longevity of human characteristics; one can measure human characteristics independently of the context in which these characteristics occur….which is debatable.

2.      a theory consistent with available data postulates that all normal people possess the ability to adapt to changing circumstances; this ability in turn involves a combination of factors that change, called the individual’s index of competency, which is believed to be correlated with scores on major ability tests today.

a.       high index can adapt more readily and find more effective solutions to environmental pressures than can those with a low index

b.      reacting to the environment, however, may change not only behavioral tendencies but also the index of competency.

c.       Repeated failures or consistent successes may increase rigidity, which in turn can lower the index of competency.

d.      In extremely demanding environment that forces an individual to call on latent reserves may increase the index.

e.       Ability and personality are always changing and can be measured only within the context in which they occur.

3.      psychological tests are based on theories which are not proven and may be invalid. A revolution in psychology theory could revolutionize psychological tests.

            Adequacy of tests

1.      Thus far, we have evaluated tests relative to traditionally accepted psychometric standards rather than absolute external criteria; are the best tests psychometrically sound?

2.      The real issue is how tests are used; people should consider absolute standards, not just relative ones, when evaluating current and future trends in testing.

3.      How certain tests are used may be determined by law (for instance, if SAT consistently underselects minority students for college)

            Accuracy of predictions made

1.      test users rarely receive feedback on the accuracy of their predictions and decisions based on tests. Do tests, then, truly enhance assessment, or are practitioners fooling themselves, repeating their errors, and teaching  them  to students?

2.      actuarial vs. clinical prediction

a.       actuarial results, based on an objective set of rules, were more accurate in interpreting results than were clinical interpretation (trained, professional practitioners).

b.      The above debate has emerged as computers have taken a more prominent role in testing.

c.       APA gives ultimate responsibility for the appropriateness of the analysis to clinicians.

Current Trends

•Proliferation of new tests        

1.      new tests developed because

2.      development of new tests is related to…

a.       increasing role of science of psychology; more rigorous psychological methods used to develop tests.

b.      Efforts made to integrate tests with other aspects of applied psychology; prefer test results that directly relate to treatment and can assess the effectiveness of treatment.

•Higher standards, improved technology, and increasing objectivity

1.      better test construction has resulted in better use of tests.

a.       comprehensive guide delineating qualifications of test users has been developed by Joint Committee on Testing Practices sponsored by:

b.      American Educational Research Association

c.       American Psychological Association

d.      American Speech-Language-Hearing Association

e.       National Council on Measurement in Education

f.        This published set of standards gives users no excuse for misusing a test.

2.      improved technology in testing – because of advances in computer technology, statistical procedures such as factor analysis and item analysis can be performed with great ease.

3.      increasing objectivity in test interpretation

4.      continuing research interest reflects trend toward objectivity in the field

a.       more attacks on Rorschach and referenced fewer times in the Mental Measurements Yearbook

b.      more reliance on MMPI-2 and referenced more times in the Mental Measurements Yearbook

•Greater public awareness and influence

1.      Public awareness has lead to an increased demand for psychological services, including testing services

2.      balanced with tendency toward restrictive legislative and judicial regulations, such as judicial decision to restrict the use of standard intelligence tests in diagnosing mental retardation.

3.      overall ambivalence: desire benefits while fearing tests’ power.

•Computerization

1.      adaptive computerized testing

a.       different sets of questions administered via computer to different individuals; computer adjusts level of item difficulty according to the subject’s response.

b.      Individualizes test and reduces total testing time

c.       Tests administered via adaptive computerized format: Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery; in 2010, SAT, GRE, and LSAT.

2.      computers being used to administer, score, and even interpret psychological tests; more programs are being developed to score and produce written tests.

•Internet testing – Brain.com offers internet-based testing for intelligence, memory, and levels of depression; one 5-minute IQ test had reliability of .84 based on 850,000 valid cases.